Sexual harassment
Sexual harassment, mainly targeted at female students, has been well-documented in primary and secondary schools and universities in both high- and low-resource settings. It negatively affects students’ performance and increases the likelihood that they will drop out (Mirsky 2003), thus preventing them from having an equal opportunity to succeed in their studies and later at their careers. Female students in health professional education institutions in Kenya and in tertiary institutions in Nigeria, Ghana, Zimbabwe, and Uganda report harassment by male faculty, who threaten the students with failing grades that can lead to demotions in graduation status and corresponding extra fees, other delays in graduation, or even withdrawal from the program (Kenya: Newman et al. 2011; Nigeria: Bakari and Leach 2007; Ghana: Morley and Lussier 2009; Zimbabwe: Zindi 1994; Uganda: Makerere University, Gender Mainstreaming Division 2011).
Sexual harassment negatively impacts a student’s ability to concentrate on or complete coursework. Studies of graduating medical students in the US, Japan, and Sweden have found that sexual harassment and gender discrimination are prevalent in medical training programs, that a higher proportion of female students report experiencing sexual harassment than do male students, and that this affects students’ selection of medical specialty and residency programs (US: Best et al. 2010; Stratton et al. 2005; George 2007; Japan: Nagata-Kobayashi et al. 2006; Sweden: Larsson, Hensing, and Allebeck 2003).
“If you go to bed with me, then I can make sure you pass.” —Ugandan university student on her experience with a lecturer (Makerere University, Gender Mainstreaming Division 2011)
“When I have got a problem and I [ask] any lecturer to help me solve it, the next thing for him is to expect me to offer him my body before solving the problem for me.” —Nigerian university student (Bakari and Leach 2007)
Cultural beliefs as well as gender norms and stereotypes create environments in which sexual harassment and/or assault are normalized but not reported, and perpetrators are unpunished, severely disrupting student life.
Caregiver responsibilities discrimination
At some point, students may need to discontinue studies because of the lesser importance attributed to female education, especially in poor countries, possibly due to expectations to care for family members and offspring. Women are sometimes discouraged from becoming pregnant, with some health facility administrators making comments such as: “It is unacceptable to become pregnant during residency” (Finch 2003, 419). In several countries, pregnant secondary school students must take mandatory time off before returning to school or even face expulsion upon becoming pregnant (Hubbard 2008). In a study of seven nursing and midwifery institutions in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the proportion of dropouts ranged from 10% to 30%, with attrition primarily due to insufficient finances, pregnancy, and marriage (Bailey, Kamanzi, and Deussom 2012).
In Kenya, pregnant health professional students may face demotion fees for taking time off and fall behind in their courses and practica (Newman et al. 2011). Trying to integrate full-time studies with family and domestic responsibilities can reduce the time available for students to participate in educational opportunities and can play a major role in attrition rates in countries including the US, the UK, Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania (Arhin and Cormier 2008; UK Department of Health 2006; Newman et al. 2011; Griffin 2007). Institutional policies and practices also limit or prevent female students from participating in classes, practica, and other curricular offerings by failing to consider students’ family responsibilities or potential safety issues. In higher education systems across East Africa, an insufficient number of accommodations and sometimes insecure living conditions have further contributed to female students dropping out from their educational programs by limiting their ability to safely access university facilities (Griffin 2007).
Suggested data analyses
Qualitative research, surveys, focus group discussions, or other special studies with health professional students can help you to understand the underlying factors and dynamics contributing to challenges of completing courses of study, and whether caregiver responsibilities discrimination prevents male and/or female students from successfully completing school.
Ask Yourself:
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